Behaviorism

For many years individuals have been fascinated with the way in which humans learn and behave. Scientists, psychologists, and even educators have studied and observed the way humans, as well as animals perform in a variety of environments. This fascination and study is known as “behaviorism.” By definition, behaviorism is “a school of psychology started by John B. Watson in 1912 that assumes nothing about people or animals and bases its conclusions entirely upon the observable reactions or ‘behavior’ of subjects when they are exposed to a given stimulus” (Pulliam & Patten 381). Behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable behaviors and disregards mental activities. There are two broad aspects of behaviorism: psychological and educational. The writer has found that the psychological aspect of behaviorism deals more with the scientific means by which humans respond to a specific stimulus and a new behavior is developed. Early behaviorists were looking for patterns in human and animal behavior to see if this behavior could be controlled. Educational behaviorists are more interested in managing behavior in an attempt to better educate students and maintain a classroom environment conducive to the learning of each individual student. Educational behaviorists have developed systems of rewards and punishments in order to achieve academic success. Throughout this paper, the writer will address the following: early behaviorism and the people who contributed to the development of this philosophy, behaviorism as an educational philosophy, and the criticisms of behaviorism.

The essential roots of behaviorism are grounded in several philosophical traditions, particularly modern realism.

Aristotle thought that humans reached form or essence through the study of particulars, and behaviorists think that people can understand human behavior by a meticulous study of particular behaviors. No “internal” reality is hidden from scientific discovery for behaviorists because what is real is external, factual, and observable that can be known (Ozman & Craver 201).

Behaviorists feel that human traits such as personality, character, and integrity are not internally determined, but are developed from environmentally conditioned patterns of behavior (Ozman & Craver 201). Behaviorists look at observable facts, instead of concentration on mind or consciousness. The materialistic branch of realism maintains that behavior is caused by environmental conditions (Pulliam & Van Patten 51).

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a prominent experimental psychologist from Russia who was recognized for his studies of the reflex reactions in humans and animals. Pavlov’s work led to what we now know of as classical conditioning, which is a reflective type response (Nye 13). He devised conditioning experiments in animals. Pavlov discovered that if a bell is rung each time a dog is fed, the dog will become conditioned to connect the sound of the bell with the food. Contemporary behaviorists feel that, while Pavlov was headed in the right direction, his explanations were too simplistic; however, his revolutionary efforts were of vital importance for the field of behaviorism (Ozmon & Craver 203).

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) also began a series of learning experiments with animals. His experiments were a series of trial and error activities in which the animal would, by “chance” arrive upon the solution. Once the animal began to realize that the same puzzle box resulted in the same solution, the animal would make the proper response more quickly. This led Thorndike to his “law of effect.” He began to extend this theory into human activity. He found a very strong effect from rewards but also discovered that punishment was a less effective means for control of behavior (Pulliam & Patten 63). Teachers began to “rapidly accept these laws of learning,” and found them to be “highly useful devices for classroom instruction” (Pulliam & Patten 64). Through his efforts, Thorndike recognized a relationship between education and psychology.

John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was an American psychologist who followed in the footsteps of Ivan Pavlov. In the early 1900s he led a revolutionary movement in psychology known as behaviorism. Watson relied solely on an observable technique restricted to behavior” (Ozmon & Craver 203). One of Watson’s beliefs was that fear was a conditioned response. In an attempt to prove that emotional reactions, such as fear, as well as rage and love, could be artificially induced, Watson conducted an experiment using a nine-month-old infant named Albert. As the infant was presented with an animal that he had not previously feared, Watson would simultaneously strike an iron bar with a hammer. The loud noise frightened and startled the child. Through this experiment Watson conditioned the infant to fear the animal even after the original stimulus of the striking bar was removed. “Watson claimed the results of his experiments on ‘Little Albert’ demonstrated that emotional reactions could be conditioned to respond to stimuli arbitrarily chosen by the psychologist” (Buckley 122). After this study and other studies at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Watson made the following statement:

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, to bring them up in any way I choose and I’ll guarantee you to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors (qtd. in Hemachek 18).

Watson made it very clear that he believed that behavior could be altered, modified, and controlled by using forms of reinforcement.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) was an American psychologist who is best known for his research into the learning process and his belief in a planned society. B. F. Skinner was widely influenced by the work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson. He recognized the significance of Pavlov’s classical conditioning as a way to interpret responses that are elicited by initially neutral stimuli (Nye 14). However, Skinner was primarily interested in the emitted responses of the behaviors that have effects on the physical and social environments in which humans live. These emitted responses make up most of the activities in which humans engage such as reading, studying, writing, working, playing sports, and so on.

Skinner saw humans as active organisms, capable of emitting a wide variety of such behaviors. Behaviors that “operate” or act on the environment to produce consequences, and are in turn affected by these consequences, are called operants. Changes in behaviors due to their consequences is the process of operant conditioning (Nye 13).

B.F. Skinner conducted experiments using a small, soundproof chamber in which an animal could be studied; this device was referred to this as the Skinner box (Nye 15). “Simple stimuli (lights, sounds), simple responses (lever presses, key pecks), and simple reinforcers (food, water) were arranged for studying the behavior of rats and pigeons” (Catania & Harnad 36). Once Skinner noticed the processes that occurred with rats and pigeons, he moved toward more complex levels in the world of humans (Nye 15).

Reinforcement was one of Skinner’s most important behavioral concepts. Reinforcement is “the affect of reward on a response that the strengthening produces it, to the reduction of physiological need” (Staddon 20). Often times the word “reinforcement” is mistakenly substituted by the word “reward.” It is important to realize that these two words are not the same. Rewards may or may not strengthen behavior. Robert Nye, author of The Legacy of B.F. Skinner, gives the following example to clarify this misconception: “A teenager may behave contrary to his parents’ wishes, despite the fact that they heap rewards (a car, money, freedom, an so on) on him” (16). This example exhibits parents who are giving rewards to their son, but they are not reinforcing his desirable behaviors. Skinner’s definition affirms that reinforcement does strengthen behavior, and reinforcement occurs only if what is being done has that effect. Therefore, rewards may or may not strengthen behavior (Nye 16).

In operant conditioning there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement is “a response strengthened by the addition of something (positive reinforcer) to the situation” (Nye 19). A child behaving to earn parental approval is an example of the effects of positive reinforcement. The parental approval is the positive reinforcer. Behaviors can also be strengthened by negative consequences (Nye 19). Negative reinforcement occurs when “a response is strengthened by the removal of something (negative reinforcer) from the situation” (Nye 19). Negative reinforcement should not be confused with punishment; it does refer to a process in which behavior is strengthened (Nye 19).

Despite the fact that many people disagree with the thought of behavioral engineering, it has become progressively more popular in the educational process. Without even realizing it, teachers condition students to do things, such as stand in a straight line or to be quiet, by giving looks and/or punishments. Teachers often use the theories behind behaviorism to drive “behavior plans” for emotionally disturbed students. These step-by-step plans include rewards (or punishments), which condition students to achieve specific patterns of behavior. These plans are designed so that when the student performs a desired behavior, the student is rewarded with tokens or points. The students are then able to trade these tokens or points for prizes, food, playtime, or other rewards. Critics disagree with this type of extrinsic reward; however, Skinner believed that this may be necessary when other methods do not motivate the students. Skinner also believed that since teachers are conditioning most of the time, they should learn how to do it more effectively (Ozman & Craver 213).

In an article titled, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching,” Skinner wrote, “The simple fact is that, as a mere reinforcing mechanism, the teacher is out of date” (qtd. in Epstein 217). Because of this belief, Skinner invented a teaching machine. This device was about the size of a small record player and would generate a question. The student would select an answer and attempt to turn a knob. If the knob turned easily, the correct answer had been selected. If the knob did not turn, then the student had selected the incorrect answer. This machine recorded the number of correct and incorrect responses. Skinner felt that the important feature of this machine was that it offered immediate feedback, and that the students were able to progress at their own rates to complete as many problems as possible during a class period (Epstein 217). Skinner recommended the use of programmed instruction, which is simply a system of breaking down information into small parts and organizing it in a way that students can understand (Bigge & Shermis 111). The principles of programmed instruction are used every day in classes all over the world in the form of computer-based self-instruction.

Educational behaviorists feel that the content being taught should be done so in “small, easily managed units” (Ozman & Craver 217). They also advise that the outcomes of learning objectives be “observable and measurable” (Ozman and Craver 217). “Today, wide varieties of behavioral techniques are already in use. All of these methods rest essentially on a particular theory: People first determine the kind of behavior they want, and then they get it repeated by reinforcing it through various rewards” (Ozman & Craver 218). Many educators question the use of rewards. Behaviorists say that these rewards don’t always have to be tangible, and that tangible rewards should be used sparingly. Skinner and others also advocate that rewards should be “systematic and immediate” (Ozman & Craver 218).

Among the criticisms previously mentioned, there are many others. Although behaviorism is scientific and research based, and has been used in education since the 1960s, people are still critical of this philosophy (Ozman & Craver 220). One widely criticized component of behaviorism is programmed instruction. “Critics point out that the use of the computer limits human interaction in teaching and learning, that it leaves the role of the teacher unspecified, and that it provides little insight into student purposes, motives, or feelings” (Ornstein & Levine). Overall, some educational professionals feel that an individual’s worth and human freedom are jeopardized by the prevalent use of technology in education (Ornstein & Levine). Another argument from anti-behaviorists is that the use of rewards is crippling to our society. Alfie Kohn, author of Punished by Rewards questions, “…what actually motivates people and what happens when rewards are (and are not) used?” (24). As stated earlier, Skinner and other behaviorists advise that rewards be used sparingly. Opponents of this also argue that external rewards may diminish intrinsic motivation. They feel that if the only reason that a behavior is performed is for a reward, then it is for the wrong reason. Opponents of behaviorism feel that people should do the right thing simply because it is the right thing to do and the intrinsic fulfillment of self-gratification should be their reward.

The writer agrees with the basic principles of behaviorism in education. She feels that rewarding young students with praise and minimal tangible rewards gives them a feeling a satisfaction and allows them to learn what behaviors are expected of them. The writer also recognizes that programmed instruction can be an effective aspect of education. This type of computer-based learning must be an enhancement to the current curriculum, not the curriculum alone. In order to be a successful teacher, one must instill a love of learning in her students. To do this, the educator should encourage students to strive for success and to assure that they be held accountable for their education.

Works Cited

Bigge, Morris L., and S. Samuel Shermis. Learning Theories for Teachers. 5^th ed. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 1992.

Buckley, Kerry W. Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the Beginnings of Behaviorism. New York: The Guilford Press, 1989.

Catania, A. Charles, and Stevan Harnad. The Selection if Behavior, The Operant of B.F. Skinner: Comments and Consequences. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Epstein, Robert. Skinner for the Classroom. Illinois: Research Press, 1982.

Hammacheck, Don. Psychology in Teaching, Learning, and Growth. 4^th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Kohn, Alfie. Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993.

Nye, Robert D. The Legacy of B.F. Skinner: Concepts and Perceptions,

Controversies and Misunderstandings. California: Wadsworth, Inc., 1992.

Ornstein, Allan C., and Daniel U. Levine. An Introduction to the Foundations of Education. 3^rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984.

Ozman, Howard, and Samuel Carver. Philosophical Foundations of Education. 7^th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.

Pulliam, John D., and James J. Van Patten. History of Education in America. 8^th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.

Staddon, John. Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society. London: Gerald

Duckwork & Co. Ltd., 1993.